Waffle

A waffle is a batter-based or dough-based cake cooked in a waffle iron patterned to give a characteristic size, shape and surface impression. There are many variations based on the type of iron and recipe used, with over a dozen regional varieties in Belgium alone. Waffles are eaten throughout the world, particularly in Belgium, France, Netherlands, and the United States. Etymologies The word “waffle” first appears in the English language in 1725: "Waffles. Take flower, cream..." It is directly derived from the Dutch ‘’wafel’’, which itself derives from the Middle Dutch ‘’wafele’’. While the Middle Dutch ‘’wafele’’ is first attested to at the end of the 13th century, it is preceded by the French ‘’walfre’’ in 1185; both are considered to share the same Frankish etymological root ‘’wafla’’. Depending on the context of the use of ‘’wafla’’, it either means honeycomb or cake. Alternate spellings throughout contemporary and medieval Europe include wafre, wafer, wâfel, waufre, gaufre, goffre, gauffre, wafe, waffel, wåfe, wāfel, wafe, vaffel, and våffla. History Medieval origins Waffles are preceded, in the early Middle Ages, around the period of the 9th-10th centuries, with the simultaneous emergence of fer à hosties / hostieijzers (communion wafer irons) and moule à oublies (wafer irons). While the communion wafer irons typically depicted imagery of Jesus and his crucifixion, the moule à oublies featured more trivial Biblical scenes or simple, emblematic designs. The format of the iron itself was almost always round and considerably larger than those used for communion. The oublie was, in its basic form, composed only of grain flour and water – just as was the communion wafer. It took until the 11th century, as a product of The Crusades bringing new culinary ingredients to Western Europe, for flavorings such as orange blossom water to be added to the oublies; however, locally-sourced honey and other flavorings may have already been in use before that time. Oublies, not formally named as such until ca. 1200, spread throughout northwestern continental Europe, eventually leading to the formation of the oublieurs guild in 1270. These oublieurs/obloyers were responsible for not only producing the oublies but also for a number of other contemporaneous and subsequent pâtisseries légères (light pastries), including the waffles that were soon to arise. 14th-16th Centuries It’s in the late 14th century that the first known waffle recipe is penned in an anonymous manuscript, Le Ménagier de Paris, written by a husband as a set of instructions to his young wife. While it technically contains four recipes, all are a variation of the first: Beat some eggs in a bowl, season with salt and add wine. Toss in some flour, and mix. Then fill, little by little, two irons at a time with as much of the paste as a slice of cheese is large. Then close the iron and cook both sides. If the dough does not detach easily from the iron, coat it first with a piece of cloth that has been soaked in oil or grease. The other three variations explain how cheese is to be placed in between two layers of batter, grated and mixed in to the batter, or left out, along with the eggs. Though some have speculated that waffle irons first appear in the 13th-14th centuries, it isn’t until 15th century that a true physical distinction between the oublie and the waffle (wafel / gaufre) begins to evolve. Notably, while recipes like the fourth in Le Ménagier de Paris is only flour, salt and wine – indistinguishable from common oublies recipes of the time – what does emerge is a new shape to many of the irons being produced. Not only are the newly-fashioned ones rectangular, taking the form of the fer à hosties, but some circular oublie irons are cut down to create rectangles. It’s also in this period that the waffle’s classic grid motif appears clearly in at least one known fer à oublie – albeit in a more shallowly engraved fashion – setting the stage for the more deeply gridded irons the Dutch were about to introduce. By the 16th century, paintings by Joachim de Beuckelaer, Pieter Aertsen and Pieter Bruegel clearly depict the modern waffle form. Bruegel’s work, in particular, not only shows waffles being cooked, but also features a man wearing three waffles strapped to his head, playing dice for waffles with a black-masked carnival-goer. The detail of this section is so fine that the waffle pattern can be counted as a large 12x7 grid, with cleanly squared sides, suggesting the use of a fairly thin batter, akin to our contemporary Brussels waffles (Brusselse wafels). Earliest of the 16th century waffle recipes, Om ghode waffellen te backen – from the Dutch KANTL 15 manuscript (ca. 1500-1560) – is only the second known waffle recipe after the four variants described in Le Ménagier de Paris. For the first time, partial measurements are given, sugar is used, and we see spices being added directly to the batter: Take grated white bread. Take with that the yolk of an egg and a spoonful of pot sugar or powdered sugar. Take with that half water and half wine, and ginger and cinnamon. Alternately attriibuted to the 16th and 17th centuries, Groote Wafelen from the Belgian Een Antwerps kookboek is published as the first recipe to use leavening (beer yeast): 'Take white flour, warm cream, fresh melted butter, yeast, and mix together until the flour is no longer visible. Then add ten or twelve egg yolks. Those who do not want them to be too expensive may also add the egg white and just milk. Put the resulting dough at the fireplace for four hours to let it rise better before baking it. Until this time, no recipes contain leavening and can therefore be easily cooked in the thin moule à oublies. Groote Wafelen, in its use of leavening, implies the need for the deeper irons (wafelijzers) depicted in the Beuckelaer and Bruegel paintings of the time.

Bucharest

Bucharest (Romanian: București pronounced [bukuˈreʃtʲ] ( listen); names in other languages) is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″ECoordinates: 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E, and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River. Bucharest was first mentioned in documents as early as 1459. Since then it has gone through a variety of changes, becoming the state capital of Romania in 1862 and steadily consolidating its position as the centre of the Romanian mass media, culture and arts. Its eclectic architecture is a mix of historical (neo-classical), interbellum (Bauhaus and Art Deco), Communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the city's elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of "Little Paris" (Micul Paris). Although many buildings and districts in the historic centre were damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes, and Nicolae Ceaușescu's program of systematization, many survived. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic and cultural boom. According to provisional data from 2011 census, 1,677,985 inhabitants live within the city limits, a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2002 census. The urban area extends beyond the limits of Bucharest proper and has a population of 1.93 million people. Adding the satellite towns around the urban area, the proposed metropolitan area of Bucharest would have a population of 2.2 million people. According to Eurostat, Bucharest has a Larger Urban Zone of 2,151,880 residents. According to unofficial data, the population is more than 3 million. Bucharest is the 10th largest city in the European Union by population within city limits. Economically, Bucharest is the most prosperous city in Romania and is one of the main industrial centres and transportation hubs of Eastern Europe. The city has a broad range of convention facilities, educational facilities, cultural venues, shopping arcades, and recreational areas. The city proper is administratively known as the Municipality of Bucharest (Municipiul București), and has the same administrative level as a county, being further subdivided into six sectors. Etymology The name of Bucureşti has an uncertain origin: tradition connects the founding of Bucharest with the name of Bucur who was either a prince, an outlaw, a fisherman, a shepherd, or a hunter, according to different legends. In Romanian the word stem bucur means 'joy', ("beautiful") and it is believed to be of Dacian origin. There were various other etymologies given by early scholars, including the one of Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi, who said that Bucharest is named after a certain "Ebu-Kariş", from the tribe of "Beni-Kureiş". In 1781, Franz Sulzer claimed that it's related to bucurie (joy), bucuros (joyful), a bucura (to become joyful), while an early 19th century book published in Vienna assumed its name is derived from "Bukovie", a beech forest. The official city name in full is the "Municipality of Bucharest" (Romanian: Municipiul București). A native or resident of Bucharest is called a "Bucharester" (Romanian: bucureștean). History Bucharest's history alternated periods of development and decline from the early settlements of the Antiquity and until its consolidation as capital of Romania late in the 19th century. First mentioned as the "Citadel of București" in 1459, it became a residence of the Wallachian prince Vlad III the Impaler. Bucharest rapidly grew to be the economic center of Romania. The Ottomans appointed Greek administrators to the town beginning in the 18th century. A revolt led by Tudor Vladimirescu in 1821 ended the rule of the Constantinople Greeks of the town. The Old Princely Court (Curtea Veche) was built by Mircea Ciobanul, and under subsequent rulers, Bucharest was established as the summer residence of the court, competing with Târgoviște for the status of capital after an increase in the importance of southern Muntenia brought about by the demands of the suzerain power, the Ottoman Empire. Bucharest became a permanent location for the Wallachian court after 1698 (starting with the reign of Constantin Brâncoveanu). Partly destroyed by natural disasters and rebuilt several times during the following 200 years, and hit by Caragea's plague in 1813–1814, the city was wrested from Ottoman control and occupied at several intervals by the Habsburg Monarchy (1716, 1737, 1789) and Imperial Russia (three times between 1768 and 1806). It was placed under Russian administration between 1828 and the Crimean War, with an interlude during the Bucharest-centred 1848 Wallachian revolution, and an Austrian garrison took possession after the Russian departure (remaining in the city until March 1857). Additionally, on 23 March 1847, a fire consumed about 2,000 buildings, destroying a third of the city. In 1862, after Wallachia and Moldavia were united to form the Principality of Romania, Bucharest became the new nation's capital; in 1881, it became the political centre of the newly-proclaimed Kingdom of Romania under Carol I. During the second half of the 19th century, due to its new status, the city's population increased dramatically, and a new period of urban development began. During this period, gas lighting, horse-drawn trams and limited electrification were introduced. The Dâmboviţa was also channelled in 1883, thus putting a stop to previously endemic floods. The extravagant architecture and cosmopolitan high culture of this period won Bucharest the nickname of "Little Paris" (Micul Paris), with Calea Victoriei as its Champs-Élysées. Between 6 December 1916 and November 1918, the city was occupied by German forces as a result of the Battle of Bucharest, with the legitimate capital temporarily moved to Iași. After World War I, Bucharest became the capital of Greater Romania. The interwar years saw continued development, with the city gaining an average of 30,000 new residents each year. Also, some of the city's main landmarks were built in this period, including Arcul de Triumf and Palatul Telefoanelor. However, the Great Depression took its toll on Bucharest's citizens, culminating in the Griviţa Strike of 1933. In January 1941, the city was the scene of the Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom. As the capital of an Axis country and a major transit point for Axis troops en route to the Eastern Front, Bucharest suffered heavy damage during World War II due to Allied bombings, and, on 23 August 1944, was the site of the royal coup which brought Romania into the Allied camp, suffering a short period of Luftwaffe bombings as well as a failed attempt by German troops to take the city by force. After the establishment of communism in Romania, the city continued growing. New districts were constructed, most of them dominated by tower blocks. During Nicolae Ceaușescu's leadership (1965–1989), much of the historic part of the city was demolished and replaced with Socialist realist development such as the Centrul Civic (the Civic Centre), including the Palace of the Parliament, where an entire historic quarter was razed to make way for Ceaușescu's megalomaniac constructions. On 4 March 1977, an earthquake centered in Vrancea, about 135 km (83.89 mi) away, claimed 1,500 lives and caused further damage to the historic centre. The Romanian Revolution of 1989 began with mass anti-Ceaușescu protests in Timișoara in December 1989 and continued in Bucharest, leading to the overthrow of the Communist regime. Dissatisfied with the post-revolutionary leadership of the National Salvation Front, student leagues and opposition groups organized large-scale protests continued in 1990 (the Golaniad), which were violently stopped by the miners of Valea Jiului (the Mineriad). Several other Mineriads followed, the results of which included a government change. After the year 2000, due to the advent of significant economic growth in Romania, the city has modernized and is currently undergoing a period of urban renewal. Various residential and commercial developments are underway, particularly in the northern districts, while Bucharest's historic centre is currently undergoing restoration. Treaties signed in Bucharest Treaty of 28 May 1812, at the end of the Russo-Turkish War Treaty of 3 March 1886, at the end of the Serbo-Bulgarian War Treaty of 10 August 1913, at the end of the Second Balkan War Treaty of 4 August 1916, the treaty of alliance between Romania and the Entente Treaty of 6 May 1918, the treaty between Romania and the Central Powers

สนธิสัญญา maastricht

สหภาพยุโรป (European Union) หรือ อียู (EU) เป็นองค์กรระหว่างประเทศ ที่ประกอบไปด้วยรัฐต่างๆ ในยุโรปจำนวน 25 รัฐ ซึ่งก่อตั้งขึ้น โดยสนธิสัญญามาสทริชต์ (Maastricht Treaty) มีสำนักงานใหญ่อยู่ที่กรุงบรัสเซลส์ ประเทศเบลเยี่ยม ซึ่งสนธิสัญญามาสทริชท์ เป็นสนธิสัญญาระหว่างกลุ่มประเทศประชาคมยุโรป เพื่อการรวมกันเป็นสหภาพทางเศรษฐกิจ และการเงินตามเป้าหมายขั้นที่สาม คือ การใช้เงินตราสกุลเดียว มีธนาคารกลางร่วมกัน การกำหนดนโยบายต่างประเทศ และนโยบายสังคมร่วมกัน รวมถึงการจัดระบบความร่วมมือทางทหาร ตำรวจ การรับรองกฎบัตรสิทธิมนุษยชน โดยการพัฒนาการเงินสามขั้นตอน คือ 1)ให้มีการเคลื่อนย้ายเงินทุนอย่างเสรี โดยเริ่มดำเนินการตั้งแต่วันที่ 1 กรกฎาคม พ.ศ.2533 2)ให้มีการจัดตั้งสถาบันการเงินแห่งยุโรป และธนาคารกลางยุโรป โดยให้เริ่มดำเนินการตั้งแต่วันที่ 1 มกราคม พ.ศ.2537 3)ให้มีการใช้เงินสกุลเดียวกัน ภายในปี พ.ศ.2540 หรืออย่างช้าไม่เกิน พ.ศ.2542 ทั้งนี้เป็นผลพวงที่สืบเนื่องมาจาก การกำหนดค่าเสมอภาคเงินดอลล่าห์กับทองคำของสหรัฐ ทำให้ประเทศอื่นๆ ทั่วโลกกำหนดค่าเสมอภาคไว้กับเงินดอลล่าร์ ปรากฏว่า ในช่วงปี 2487-2501 จึงเป็นช่วงความรุ่งเรืองด้านเศรษฐกิจของสหรัฐ และอิทธิพลของสหรัฐครอบงำไปทั่วโลก ในขณะที่เงินดอลลาร์เฟื่องนั้น ประเทศต่างๆ ในยุโรปได้ลดค่าเงินของตนเองลง สหรัฐเริ่มขาดดุลการค้าเป็นครั้งแรก ในปี พ.ศ.2493 และการขาดดุลการค้าระดับรุนแรง ในปี พ.ศ.2501 ทำให้ประเทศในยุโรปตะวันตก เริ่มมองว่ามีเงินดอลลาร์มากเกินไป และเริ่มวิเคราะห์ปัญหาอย่างจริงจัง เพราะเห็นชัดว่าดอลล่าร์ล้นตลาด ขณะที่สหรัฐขาดดุลการค้า และเชื่อกันว่าสหรัฐ พิมพ์ดอลลาร์ มากกว่าทองคำหนุนหลัง ทำให้ยุโรปเริ่มแสวงหา ความมั่นคงทางด้านเศรษฐกิจ ให้กับประเทศในยุโรปตะวันตก จึงรวมตัวกันเป็นประชาคมยุโรป (European Community : EC) เมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2510 โดยมีสมาชิกขั้นต้น 6 ประเทศ คือ ฝรั่งเศส เยอรมนี อิตาลี เบลเยียม เนเธอร์แลนด์ และ ลักเซมเบิร์ก ซึ่งมีจุดมุ่งหมาย เพื่อยึดถือหลักการของการค้าเสรี และมุ่งที่จะลดอุปสรรคด้านภาษี ต่อมาใน ปี พ.ศ.2529 ได้ร่วมลงนามในกฎหมาย ยุโรปเดียว (Single European Act) โดยมีสมาชิกเพิ่มเป็น 12 ประเทศ ได้แก่ ฝรั่งเศส เยอรมนี อิตาลี เบลเยียม เนเธอร์แลนด์ ลักเซมเบิร์ก อังกฤษ ไอร์แลนด์ เดนมาร์ก กรีซ สเปน และโปรตุเกส หลังจากนั้นสมาชิก ได้ขยายความร่วมมือขึ้นไปอีกระดับ ด้วยการ ลงนามในสนธิสัญญา การรวมตัวเป็นยุโรปเดียว (Treaty of the European Union) หรือ สนธิสัญญามาสทริชต์ (Maastricht Treaty) ในปี พ.ศ.2536 โดย สาระสำคัญ คือ กำหนดแนวทาง การรวมตัวกัน เป็นสหภาพเศรษฐกิจ และ การเงิน และ หลังจากสมาชิก ได้รับรองสนธิสัญญา ดังกล่าว ส่งผลให้ "ประชาคมยุโรป" เปลี่ยนมาเป็น "สหภาพยุโรป" (European Union : EU) ตั้งแต่ วันที่ 1 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ.2536 เป็นต้นมา จึงทำให้ประเทศสมาชิกประสาน นโยบายทางการเงิน โดยใช้สกุลเงินเดียว (Single Currency) คือ ECU (European Currency Unit) หรือ ชื่อทางการว่า "เงินสกุลยูโร (Euro)" ซึ่งเริ่มใช้ในปี พ.ศ.2542 โดยปัจจุบันก็มีสมาชิกเข้าร่วมเพิ่มเติม หลายประเทศเช่น ไซปรัส สาธารณรัฐเช็ก เอสโตเนีย ฮังการี ลัตเวีย เป็นต้น